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damenta 
Electricity 



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BY W. F. W1EMAN 




Class_ 

Book J ■ ■ 



GopyrightU?_ 



COHRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



FUNDAMENTAL 
ELEGTRIGITY 

By W. P. WlEMAN 

Steam and Electrical Engineer 
Member Society Astronomers De France 

A Practical Treatise on the Fundamental. 
Principles Underlying Electricity 

The Relationship Between Physical Astronomy 
and Electrical Phenomena Fully Explained 

27 Illustrations 

Copyright 1919, by The Wieman Co. 
All Rights Reserved 

The Wieman Gompany, Publishers 
N. S., Pittsburgh, Pa. 

RISING & RADCLIFFE <$SM£^> BRADY BUILDING 



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APR 24 1919 
C0.ASI.S33S 



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PREFACE 

In reaching into Astronomy to explain 
Electricity would seem only to intensify the 
feeling against these subjects in the minds of 
many, who regard Astronomy as a study of 
pure curiosity, and Electricity as a prohibi- 
tive study ; but a perusal of this book should 
dispel the idea that Astronomy is a study of 
curiosity, and that Electricity is beyond 
understanding. On the contrary, Astronomy 
has a great deal to recommend it. Navigation 
of the seas, our daily time, seasons of the 
year and, in fact, the concerns of our daily life 
depend upon the practical application of As- 
tronomy, while Electricity has already per- 
formed sufficiently well to permit its exami- 
nation, notwithstanding the advice of some 
writers "not to try to fathom the science of 
electricity too deeply." 

In performing its functions, electricity sur- 
renders itself for investigation. Former 
efforts to solve electricity have failed for the 
sole reason that physical astronomy was 
ignored. In view of past failures, it would 
seem fair and profitable to review the two 
branches together and ascertain their mutual 
relationship. 

In a review of the subject of Fundamental 
Electricity, it is imperative that the whole 

3 



field of Natural Laws be investigated in order 
to secure only such laws as bear most di- 
rectly on electricity. From a practical stand- 
point, the Author is favorably equipped for 
this work, with theoretical and practical ex- 
perience of thirty-five years in the designing, 
machining, installing and operating of elec- 
trical appliance in its many branches, from 
the days of the introduction of commercial 
electricity, when the small Bi-pole Dynamo 
was a wonder, through the long process of 
electrical development to the monstrous 
Turbo-driven Polyphase Generators of today. 

For many years the writer has been a stu- 
dent of Physical Astronomy, in which study 
he found many indications of electrical 
phenomena, which induced the thought that 
Physical Astronomy was a close relative of 
Electricity. With this in mind the two 
branches were investigated together, with 
the result as followed in this review. 

With this method of investigation, and 
with the knowledge of prejudice to leaving 
the well-beaten path of Electrical Theories 
and Hypothesis, the writer offers the follow- 
ing review with the hope that the knowledge 
of Fundamental Electricity will be advanced 
and simplified for the benefit of all. 

THE AUTHOR. 
4 



FAMOUS WRITERS 

Theories and Hypothesis of Electricity, by 

Famous Writers 

Prof. Elihu Thompson : 

(Address, Thompson Scientific Club, Lynn, 
Mass., 1890.) 

What is Electricity ; can we answer it ? No. 
We can only point out the lines of progress in 
that direction and hope that sometime in the 
future the secret will be out; at least so far 
as finite mind can obtain an answer. 

The current magnetizes, not air, because of 
we take away the air you will find the mag- 
netism there still. Well, then, it must mag- 
netize the universal ether which is present 
everywhere. The current produces lines of 
magnetic strain in it. 

Light is electric magnetic waves ; they are 
waves in the ether, and are electric waves. 
The whole science of optics is an electric 
study. 

Electric waves go through glass, but do not 
go through a copper plate. 
N. Hawkins, M.E. (Hawkin's Catechism of 
Electricity) : 

Electromotive Force acts not on matter, 
but on Electricity and tends to move it. 

Following from Dictionary of Electrical 



Words, by Edwin J. Houston, A.M., Ph.D. : 

Clark Maxwell : 

Vibrations of light are electric waves. 

Sylvanus P. Thompson: 

Electricity, whatever its true nature, is 
one, not two; that this electricity, whatever 
it may prove to be, is not matter and is not 
energy; that it resembles both matter and 
energy in one respect, however, in that it can- 
not be created nor destroyed. 

W. Perrin Maycock: 

Whatever Electricity is, it is impossible to 
say; but for the present it is convenient to 
look upon it as a kind of invisible something 
which pervades all bodies. 

Prof. Rowland: 

There is nothing more certain today than 
that Electricity is not a fluid. 

A. Stoletow: 

Throughout the Nineteenth century this 
enigma (What is Electricity?) has been the 
object of numerous reserches . . . and yet 
the inner workings of Electrical phenomena 
remain still a deeper mystery. 

Faraday : 

Moving a wire across a magnetic field cuts 



lines of force and generates a current of elec- 
tricity in that wire. 

Hughes-Ewing: 

The atoms of matter possess naturally op- 
posite magnetic polarities, which are respect- 
ively North and South. 

Angelo Secchi: 

The Earth's magnetism is due to induction 
from an already magnetized Sun (this is not 
credited by writers). 
Biglow : 

The Earth's magnetism is caused by rota- 
tion in the magnetic field of the Sun's light 
and radiation. 

Ampere : 

The ultimate particles of all magnetizable 
bodies have closed electric circuits in which 
electric currents are continually flowing. 

Edwin J. Houston, A.M., Ph.D. : 

Electricity, no matter how produced, is be- 
lieved to be one and the same thing. The 
terms, Frictional, Pyro, Magneto, Voltaic, 
Galvanic, Thermo, Contact, Animal Electric- 
ity, etc., though convenient for distinguish- 
ing their origin, have no longer the signifi- 
cance formerly attributed to them as repre- 
senting different kinds of electrical force. 



The cutting of lines of force produce differ- 
ence of potential. This is true whether the 
conductor moves through the stationary field 
or whether the field moves through the sta- 
tionary conductor, so that the lines of force 
and the conductor cut one another. This cut- 
ting is mutual. Each line of force cuts and 
is cut by the circuit. Since all lines of force 
form closed circuits or paths, the cutting of 
the circuit by the lines of force, or the re- 
verse, form a link or chain, and the cutting 
takes place at the moment of linking or un- 
linking, i. e., of cutting. 




INTRODUCTION 

To Know — 

That which before us lies in daily life, 
That is the prime wisdom. 

—Milton. 

During our lives that which we have been 
taught differs greatly from that which we 
have learned. One of the greatest things we 
have learned is that we live in a very Natural 
World, a world in which Natural Law reigns 
supreme; laws which were handed down at 
the beginning of time; laws that have per- 
formed their function without error through 
countless ages, in all parts of the Universe, 
giving life to all matter in whatever form. 
These untiring, undestroyable forces from 
which no deviation can be made, provided 
free and in unlimited quantity, to provide the 
comforts and conveniences of man, in a thou- 
sand different ways. Electricity is only one 
of the many gifts to this world to be used by 
man for his comfort, and it is a duty we owe 
ourselves to know more about nature's work, 
that we may better apply these generous 
gifts so abundantly supplied. 

We are living in an age of progress and en- 
lightenment. Every day brings us closer to 
the realization of nature's work. The exist- 
ence of all materials in whatever form, nat- 



ural or manufactured, all manifestations of 
activity or conditions as observed by man, 
are the direct result of Natural Forces. 

Man's wonderful accomplishments in apply- 
ing natural forces in the past should be an 
incentive to the present mind to learn the 
WHY? of these results, and strive to advance 
still further. 

Let us, therefore, make a strong effort to 
go a step forward and if possible, master the 
fundamental principles of one of nature's 
greatest gifts — Electricity. 

It should be emphasized here that no mat- 
ter in what form electricity may present it- 
self, Lightning, Wireless Waves, Heating, 
Power, Electrolysis or by any other manifes- 
tation, it is the same thing, and it is the de- 
sire here to find a solution to the Source, 
Nature and Action of electricity and to pre- 
sent the matter in the most simple and un- 
derstandable way, to avoid the use of math- 
ematics and complicated references, to use 
photographs of fact, and simple drawings of 
practice, along with plain talk. 

Sir Isaac Newton gave the world the Law 
of Universal Gravitation in 1667; Faraday, 
the Electric Dynamo in 1831 ; Brush and Edi- 
son, the Arc and Incandescent Lights in 1878, 

10 



which latter date marks the beginning of 
commercial electricity, and after forty years 
of unparalleled growth, Fundamental Elec- 
tricity still remains a mystery. 



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11 



ELECTRICITY 

Electricity is a name by which electric 
phenomena is known, but does not give the 
slightest hint to the fundamental principles 
of the phenomena, so that the word can be 
used only to designate electric manifesta- 
tion. 

Electricity is not one thing, but a result 
of a combination of several Natural Forces 
acting on matter, which will readily admit 
of explanation, providing sufficient range be 
permitted. 

Owing to the range limit placed on the 
source of magnetism, electricity has been 
propounded in the past without the slightest 
prospect of solution. The fear of being dis- 
credited (as was Secchi who proposed a mag- 
netized Sun), morally restricts the investi- 
gator to expressions borne out only by pre- 
cedent reference. This unwritten law acts 
as a brake on electrical investigation, and 
will be set aside in this instance. 

We will leave the well-beaten path of spec- 
ulation as to what electricity ought to be, 
that it resembles or acts like something which 
is not itself understood, avoid long reference 
explanations that do not explain (and very 
often lead the subject into foreign channels, 

12 



making the subject more confusing than 
ever), and remain within plain reason and 
facts that give practical proof that we can 
understand. 

There are many writers on this subject 
who have explained electricity from many 
angles, and with few exceptions their work 
has been confined to special branches of the 
subject, on the whole, seeming to form a ring 
around the main subject within which none 
will enter. However, during the many years 
of electrical progress in which the writers 
and publishers have propounded electricity, 
the practical engineer, electrical worker and 
experimentor have been a great factor in the 
success of electrical advancement, and, as a 
matter of fact, owing to the isolated position 
of this class of workers, their voices are sel- 
dom or never heard, their ambitions and ac- 
complishments are very often rewarded with 
a steady job, while their standing in a pro- 
gressive world is zero. It is for this reason 
that the writer, who has been a worker along 
these lines for the past thirty-five years, in 
addition to many years of study in Astron- 
omy, will make the effort to explain the 
fundamental principles of electricity as he 

13 



understands it, without resort to mathemat- 
ical gymnastics or literary luster. 

Electricity will be analyzed to find its com- 
ponent parts, to locate their source and learn 
their nature. Some parts are found close at 
hand, while others extend very far away. 
Approved or condemned theories and hypo- 
thesis must take their chances as the subject 
is weighed with facts that will give a practi- 
cal understanding to form a solid foundation 
upon which to build a better electrical educa- 
tion. 




14 



Fie. 1. 




Double Cluster of Stars in Perseus. 



15 



UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION 

Gravitation is that force which forms an 
attraction between all particles of matter, and 
acts as a tie between the Sun and its Planets, 
holding the Planets at a fixed distance in their 
travel around the Sun, and is essential in 
showing universal control between celestial 
bodies, which we shall expect to find in our 
research of the physical universe. 

As we view the heavens on a clear night, 
we see thousands of stars (Suns). Their 
brilliancy and number multiply many times 
when viewed through a telescope. Even the 
telescope is improved on by the sensitive 
photograph plate which permits of long ex- 
posures and reveals many wonderful things 
in the sky. Following are a few photographs 
which show what is going on in the heavens 
at this time: 

Fig. 1. A double cluster of stars in the 
constellation Perseus. Over two thousand 
suns are shown in this picture. Many of 
them cannot be seen with our largest tele- 
scopes, owing to their great distance. It is 
characteristic of star photographers to make 
the stars appear in the plane of the picture, 
but while the nearest star in the picture is 
many billion miles fiiom us, the farthest 

16 



Fig. 2. 




Great Star Cloud in the Milky Way. 



away may be a billion times the distance of 
the nearest. Stars travel through space at 
great velocity, and reach a speed of one 
thousand miles per second or more. They 
travel in vacuum, and are not hindered by 
resistance, such as air resistance of our at- 
mosphere. 



Fig. 2. Star cloud in the Milky Way. This 
is the most complex system of stars in the 
universe. This plate contains over ten 
thousand stars (or suns), all moving at high 
velocity and under full control of the Natural 
Forces. 



Fig. 3. Nebula in the constellation Orion, 
showing clearly the result of a catastrophy 
between two great bodies striking each other 
at great velocity, creating most intense heat 
and hurling heated masses into space for 
many millions of miles. The great quantity 
of highly heated matter viewed from the 
Earth gives it the appearance of clouds. It 
is here that Gravity shows its great pow r er, 
for it was through the force of Gravity that 
these great bodies fell together and trans- 
formed their motion into heat. 

18 



Fig. 3. 




The Great Nebula in Orion. 



19 



Fig. 4. 




The "Trifid Nebula" in Sagittarius. 



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Fig. 4. The Great Trifid Nebula in Sagit- 
tarius. This great conflagration is also the 
result of impact, resulting from the force of 
Gravity, causing violent atomic vibration of 
the materials composing the bodies, and 
thereby generating great heat. 

Fig. 5. The great Spiral Nebula in Andro- 
meda, resulting from impact due to force of 
gravitation. In this case the two bodies did 
not strike fairly as in the two former pic- 
tures, and resulted in giving the entire mass a 
turning motion, distributing great quantities 
of heated matter many billions of miles into 
space. We are informed that the entire Solar 
System could occupy a position within the 
central body of this nebula without incon- 
venience. This Nebula shows signs of Sys- 
tem formation resembling our own Solar Sys- 
tem, and will doubtless reach our tempera- 
ture state some time. 

Fig. 6. Spiral Nebula in Ursa Major, the 
result of impact due to Gravity. This nebula 
is of great age, and shows a more advanced 
stage of system formation resembling our 
own Solar System. 

The above photographs were taken from 
widely different parts of the heavens, and is 
a general condition prevailing throughout the 
universe. 

21 



Fig. 5. 




The Great "Spiral Nebula" in Andromeda. 



Fig, 6. 




Great Spiral Nebula in Ursa Major. 



23 



UNIVERSAL FORCES 

Newton's Laws of Motion 

First. Every body continues in its state 
of rest, or of uniform motion in a straight 
line, except in so far as it may be compelled 
to change that state by forces impressed 
upon it. 

Second. Change of motion is proportional 
to the impressed force, and takes place in the 
direction of the straight line in which the 
force is impressed. 

Third. To every action there is always an 
equal and contrary reaction, or the actions 
of two bodies upon each other are always 
equal and oppositely directed. 

Newton's Laws prove Universal Gravita- 
tion, or the attraction of gravity between 
all particles of matter within the universe. 
The operation of Newton's Law of Gravita- 
tion, however, depends on empty space, or 
vacuum, for the reason that: Two bodies of 
equal weight, but unequal shape and dimen- 
sion, will travel at unequal speeds through 
a denser medium, with equally impressed 
force, so that Newton's Laws prove Universal 
VACUUM. 

24 



NEWTON'S 2d and 3d law also applies to 
magnetism, in that, "2d. Change of motion 
is proportional to the impressed force; 3d 
The actions of two bodies upon each other 
are always equal and oppositely directed." 



Law of Magnetism: 

Unlike poles attract each other, 
Like poles repel each other. 

The attractive force of Gravity and Mag- 
netism therefore seem very similar, but from 
our viewpoint, both forces acting on terres- 
trial bodies are opposed by centrifugal force, 
and the maintained balance of the bodies in 
their movement gives little indication of the 
activity of Gravity and Magnetism on the 
bodies. However, the axis stability of all the 
bodies in the Solar System (in which Gravita- 
tion has no part) must be maintained by 
Magnetism. Supporting this is the Earth's 
Magnetic Permanency, as shown by the com- 
pass. The variations in the intensity of the 
earth's magnetism during the period of mag- 



netic storms (or sun spots) on the sun can 
leave no doubt of the existence of Universal 
Magnetism. 

Therefore, it must now be evident that the 
Stars form a great Universal System, and 
that this system of celestial bodies float in 
space and are controlled by Natural Forces, 
and finally that the Solar System (of which 
the Earth is a part) is a part of the great 
Universal System and subject to the same 
Laws and Forces, so that the successive pro- 
cess of system formation as shown in photo- 
graphs from different parts of the heavens 
must be accepted as proof that the mode of 
action of Natural Forces throughout the Uni- 
verse is the same. 






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20 



PHYSICAL UNIVERSE 

The physicial universe is composed of hun- 
dreds of thousands of burning suns or stars, 
also many dark or extinct stars whose heat 
has dissipated from age, and are noted only 
when passing before a burning sun. Many 
stars or suns are known to have dark bodies 
revolving around them, on the order of the 
planets in our own Solar System, and when 
one of these dark bodies or planets pass the 
face of the star, the light of the star is re- 
duced during the transit of the body, after 
which the star again resumes its full bril- 
liancy. All celestial bodies travel through 
absolute Vacuum at various speeds, under 
the influence of natural forces, and when two 
bodies get within their mutual influence, 
Gravitation causes them to fall together, with 
the result already explained. 

Stars differ in temperature, brilliancy and 
size. The Sun has an atmosphere of heated 
hydrogen gas, and gives out a white light. 
Its temperature is about 9,000 degrees. Alpha 
(a), Taurus had a hydrogen atmosphere with 
a temperature of 3,870 degrees, and gives 
out a red light, while Gamma (7) Pegasus 
has a helium atmosphere with a temperature 



of 720,000 degrees, and gives out a blue 
light. 

The Sun is the only light-giving body in 
the Solar System. Owing to its great mass 
it still retains much of its original heat, and 
while it is slowly cooling, many million years 
will be required to reduce its temperature to 
a non-light giving body. However, the 
planets have long since reached this point. 
Many of the smaller bodies, such as moons 
and inferior plantes, have become absolutely 
cold. 

But in view of these facts, we must not 
lose sight of the fact that no matter what 
the condition of the body, Gravity and Mag- 
netism are still in full control. 



28 



THE SOLAR SYSTEM 

We are all very familiar with that great 
furnace in the sky, the SUN, its daily trips 
with its bright light and warmth, its unfail- 
ing punctuality, the father of rain and snow, 
the greatest friend of all living things on 
earth, respected by the Scientist and revered 
by the primitive tribes; in fact we have be- 
come so accustomed to the daily visits and 
conveniences that we accept the gifts with- 
out further thought, and it is only when we 
are in need of knowledge that we stop in our 
work to learn something about this great 
body. It is then that we are amazed at the 
wonderful size, movement, position, heat and 
light-giving capacity, its composition of many 
materials and capacity for governing Natural 
Forces, with which it controls the Solar Sys- 
tem. 

The Sun has a rotary motion, and as we 
view the face of the Sun, it revolves on its 
own axis from East to West, in a period of 
about 25 days (its South pole pointing to the 
North Star) . All the Planets revolve around 
the Sun in the same direction as its own mo- 
tion, but they vary greatly in the period of 
their journey around the Sun, owing to dif- 
ference in size of orbit and speed of Planets. 

29 



Fi£. 7. 




Solar System Diagram. 



30 



The orbits of all the Planets in the Solar 
System are in the plane of a plate or disc, and 
all Planets and their Moons have their axis 
or center line pointing out of the plate forma- 
tion of the System in the direction of the 
North or Pole Star. This is most important 
in our research, as showing the Magnetic in- 
clination of the Sun and Planets in our Solar 
System. The Sun being the controlling body, 
it follows that it is the only body in this Sys- 
tem that is controlled by an outside body or 
source. The North Star is not the control- 
ing body for our System, as it is in the wrong 
position in relation to the vortex formation 
and magnetic inclination of the Solar System, 
and therefore, only occupies the position of 
Pole Star, without influence on our System. 

The Solar System occupies a space which 
measures five billions of miles across, and 
constitutes only a very small part of the 
Universe. The nearest fixed star to us is the 
Bright Star (a) in the constellation Centauri, 
and is 25 trillions of miles away from the 
Solar System, many stars being so distant 
that they cannot be measured with the best 
instruments on Earth. 

From our viewpoint, the Solar System ap- 
pears to occupy a central position among the 



stars of the Universe. The stars as we see 
them, surround the Solar System, forming 
constellations of various shapes and groups, 
and it is by these constellations that our po- 
sition in the Earth's orbit (or time of year) 
is ascertained during the year. 



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SUN AND PLANETS 

Fig. 7. The Sun is a star and is the cen- 
tral and parent body of the Solar System. The 
Sun is accompanied by eight major Planets, 
each traveling in its own orbit around the 
Sun. Each orbit increases in distance from 
the Sun in the following order: Mercury, 
Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, 
Neptune. The closest Planet to the Sun is 
Mercury, whose distance is 35,000,000 miles. 
The farthest from the Sun is Neptune, whose 
distance is 2,746,000,000 miles. An aeroplane 
traveling at the rate of 200 miles an hour, 
would require 20 years to fly from Mercury to 
the Sun, and would require 1,500 years to fly 
from Neptune to the Sun, while Sun light 
reaches Neptune in about 10 days. These 
notes should give some idea of the vastness 
of the Universe which constitutes the work- 
shop of Natural Forces. (See Table B.) 

With its mighty mass and power, the Sun 
controls all the bodies in the Solar System, 
either directly or indirectly. The satellites 
or moons which revolve around the several 
Planets, are secondary bodies and are in turn 
controlled by the Planet around which they 
revolve, the Earth having but one moon, while 
Jupiter and Saturn each have eight. Uranus 

33 



Fig. 8. 




Spectroheliogram of Calcium Gas on the Sun. 
(Comparative of Sun and Planets). 



34 





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has four and Neptune one. Comets, of which 
there are a number in the Solar System, are 
primary bodies and are controlled directly 
by the Sun. Comets have an elliptical orbit 
and do not follow the rule of plate formation 
of the Planets, but travel around the Sun 
at most any angle, one end of the elliptical 
orbit being close around the Sun. The other 
may extend beyond the orbit of Neptune. 

A number of small Planets revolve around 
the Sun in orbits between the orbits of Mars 
and Jupiter. These small primary Planets 
are in direct control of the Sun and follow 
the same laws as the major Planets. 

The Sun's magnetic field extends to all the 
bodies that have orbits around the Sun. 
Moons or Satellites which have orbits around 
a Planet are in the magnetic zone of that 
Planet and are not in direct control of the 
Sun, but in control of the Planet around 
which they revolve. 



36 



PROPERTIES OF SOLAR BODIES 

A brief description of properties of Solar 
Bodies, showing their tendency to Magnet- 
ism. 

Comparative Sizes 

Fig. 8. This descriptive drawing shows 
the comparative size and mass of the Sun and 
Planets. The Sun is represented by the large 
figure. The smaller spots represent the com- 
parative sizes of the Planets in their order: 
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, Mars, Jupiter, 
Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Some idea of 
the enormous size of the Sun may be had 
from the fact that it would require 1,250,000 
Earths to equal the mass of the Sun. 



^ 

^ 



37 



Fig. 9. 




Storms on the Sun. 
By Prof. Fox Yerkes. 



38 



SUN 
Spectroheliogram 

The Sun as shown in the above picture is a 
Spectroheliogram of calcium gas in the Sun's 
atmosphere. The photograph was taken at 
the Lick Observatory, California. The 
broken or mottled appearance shows a very 
unsettled and disturbed condition of the 
heated surface of the Sun. (Note — This 
photograph was taken from that part of the 
prismatic light of the Sun that shows only 
calcium gas. Other heated gasses in the 
Sun's atmosphere are not visible in this 
picture.) 

Storms On the Sun 

Fig. 9. A group shutter photograph show- 
ing only the edge or atmospheric zone of the 
Sun, (the body of the Sun being screened by 
a circular shutter to cut off the bright light 
of the Sun's body, to bring the heated atmos- 
phere into view). A violent storm of heated 
gas is in action. The four plates were taken 
between 10:02 and 11:35 A. M., May 21st, 
1907, by Professor Fox, at the Yerkes Ob- 
servatory, the flames having reached a height 
of 172,000 miles from the surface of the Sun, 
with a maximum velocity of 25 miles per 

39 



second. Sun storms are in action at all times, 
being more violent near the Sun's equator. 
Flames having reached a height of 500,000 
miles from the Sun's surface are recorded. 

Sun storms are the result of internal unrest 
of matter near the surface, and is due to con- 
traction from loss of heat, such as cause 
earthquake and volcanic eruption on earth. 
These storms cause fluctuations in the Solar 
Magnetic Field, as is shown by the magnetic 
disturbance on Earth. 

Heat of the Sun 

The heat of the Sun (9,000 degrees Fahren- 
heit) is not due to combustion or the burning 
of materials as the fires on Earth, as the fires 
are not supported by Oxygen, but is the re- 
sult of stored energy of Atomic Activity, 
having its beginning at the time of the Sun's 
creation, the Sun's creation being the result 
of a great catastrophe between two great 
bodies traveling toward each other at very 
high velocity, under the influence of Gravita- 
tion, the intensity of impact generated ex- 
treme heat in the matter composing the 
bodies. In fact, the extreme heat not only 
liquefied, but gasefied a great portion of the 
matter. Many large and highly heated parti- 

40 



cles were thrown far out into space at that 
time, which continued to revolve around the 
parent body for ages, undergoing the process 
of cooling, and shaping under the influence of 
Natural Forces, to form Planets, Moons and 
Comets, until now we find the smaller bodies 
extremely cold and the larger bodies retaining 
their heat according to their size or mass. 
The process of early development is clearly 
shown in protographs Figs. 1 to 6, showing 
in their order stars calmly moving in space 
and collisions between them ; also the stages 
of system development, in which the smaller 
bodies are seen to be under the influence of 
the main body, as indicated by their vortex 
formation, being duplicates of the formation 
of the Solar System at the time of its birth. 
In spite of its extreme heat, the Sun is a 
huge Permanent Magnet. A heated body 
containing magnetizable matter may be per- 
manently magnetized when its solidity or 
rigidity is sufficient to prevent movement of 
its atoms. The center pressure of the Sun 
is about 646,382 tons per square inch, or 
6,463 times that of hard steel, and therefore 
has a permanency of 6,463 times that of a 
permanent steel magnet on Earth. 

ii 



Fig. 10. 




Saturn. 



42 



SATURN 

Fig. 10. Saturn is the sixth Planet from 
the Sun, and second in size. Owing to its large 
mass it has not cooled as fast as the Earth 
and still retains much of its original heat. 
Its dense atmosphere and dark belts which 
are continually changing in form indicate 
that violent volcanic action is still going on, 
making plant or animal life impossible on 
the Planet at this time. Saturn, however, has 
other features which place it in the first rank 
as the wonder of the skies. Its Rings, which 
are formed of small particles of matter and 
travel around the Planet at great velocity. 
The several Rings (one within the other) are 
absolutely cold and move in absolute vacuum 
around the Planet. The various shades of 
the several rings are due to larger or smaller 
size and number of particles composing the 
ring. The stability of the rings is due to 
Gravity attraction, Inertia and Centrifugal 
Force, and like the Planet itself, they receive 
their light from the Sun. The shadow of the 
Planet may be seen on the rings at the rear 
of the Planet. 

In addition to the belts and rings of Saturn, 
eight Moons revolve around the Planet, their 

43 



Fig. 11. 




Jupiter. 



44 



orbits being far outside the rings, but their 
plane of movement is the same as the rings. 

The axis and stability of all the bodies 
composing the small Saturn System plainly 
show the magnetic permanency of the sys- 
tem, and its magnetic control by the Sun, 
following the same laws of movement as the 
Solar System. All rings and moons revolve 
around the Planet in disc fashion and in the 
same direction as the Planet itself. The axis 
or magnetic pole of the Planet is in line with 
that of the Sun, i. e., pointing towards the 
Pole Star. The rings and moons, however, 
are within the magnetic zone of the Planet 
and are magnetically controlled by Saturn. 






45 



Fir. 12. 




Earth. 



46 



JUPITER 

Fig. 11. Jupiter is the fifth and largest 
Planet in the Solar System. The atmosphere 
is very dense with smoke or vapor clouds. 
The high rotative speed of the Planet causes 
the clouds to form in streams, giving the 
appearance of belts, by which name they are 
known. The belts vary in form and number, 
indicating violent volcanic activity on the 
Planet, proving that Jupiter, like Saturn, has 
not as yet reached the cool state that would 
support life. Jupiter has eight Moons that 
revolve around the Planet in disc fashion or 
in the plane of the Planet's equator. 

The axis stability of Jupiter and his Moons 
again prove the law of Solar Magnetism. 



47 



EARTH 

Fig. 12. The Earth (OUR HOME) is the 
third Planet from the Sun and fifth in size, 
blessed with an abundant atmosphere, an 
ocean of air, estimated at 100 miles deep and 
surrounding the entire Earth, having a press- 
ure of 14.7 pounds at sea level. It is in this air 
that we live and breathe. Without it life 
could not exist, and fires would go out for 
want of Oxygen, of which the air is partly 
composed. We are also provided with a mod- 
erate temperature and an abundance of water. 
With these advantages the Earth is the only 
body in the Solar System at this time capable 
of sustaining vegetable or animal life, and, 
therefore, the Earth is more susceptible to 
the actions of Natural Forces than any other 
body in the Solar System (or in the universe 
so far as we know). The Earth's magnetic 
and geographical North Poles, like that of all 
other bodies in our system, point to the Pole 
Star. 



48 



Fig. 13. 




Moon. 



11) 



MOON 

Fig. 13. The Moon is the satellite of the 
Earth, and revolves around the Earth in 
about 28 days, its movement being from West 
to East (or contrary to its apparent move- 
ment across the sky). It turns on its axis 
once in 28 days and always presents the same 
side to the Earth. The axis of the Moon, like 
that of the Earth, points to the Pole Star. The 
familiar dark markings on the Moon give 
mute expression of its battles with heat at the 
time of its death many years ago. 

Owing to the small size and great age of 
the Moon, it has lost all its original heat, and 
today is absolutely cold (or 460 degrees below 
zero). Like the Earth it receives its light 
from the Sun. The Sun-lit portions of the 
Moon may be seen from the Earth and that 
portion of light that is reflected to the Earth 
we know as Moonlight. The distance of the 
Moon from the Earth is 240,000 miles. The 
atmosphere of the Earth is 100 miles deep, 
so that the Moon is far outside our atmos- 
phere and travels in absolute vacuum, but 
the Earth's magnetic zone extends far be- 
yond the Moon and magnetically controls the 
Moon's axis. 

50 



In reviewing the bodies of the Solar System 
we must bear in mind that all bodies within 
this system are of the same age, all having 
their birth at the same time, as already ex- 
plained, the present state of the bodies being 
due to their respective temperatures through 
loss of original heat energy. 



51 



FORCE 

Force consists of two kinds — Base and 
Compound. 

A base natural force is a single force acting 
alone, such as Gravity, Magnetism, Centrif- 
ugal, etc. 

A compound natural force is a number of 
natural forces acting together, such as Elec- 
tricity, which is composed of Magnetic, Elec- 
tromotive, Atomic Vibration and Resistance. 

There are many different Natural Forces, 
each distinct and separate from the rest, each 
having a duty to perform. Some are univer- 
sal, some are local, some exist eternally, 
others have a period of life, but each follow 
on unchangeable natural law. Two rays of 
light existing a thousand miles or years apart 
will act just the same ; nor can a force be lost, 
created or destroyed, the forces having a 
period of life are only dormant for a time and 
become active again when the conditions are 
proper. Gravity and Magnetism are Uni- 
versal and Eternal Natural Forces, and every 
body in the Universe, regardless of its state 
or position, is under the full control of these 
mighty forces. 

52 



MATTER 

Matter is anything which occupies space in 
three directions and prevents other matter 
from simultaneously occupying the same 
space. 

The Atom is the ultimate particle of mat- 
ter, or the smallest quantity of elementary 
matter that can exist. 

An Element is any kind of matter which 
cannot be decomposed into simpler matter. 
We know of but 76 elements at this time. 
(See Table A.) 

Nearly all of the known elements exist on 
Earth. Astronomers find many earthly ele- 
ments in the heated surface of the Sun and 
Stars, being ascertained through the aid of 
the Spectroscope, establishing the proof that 
all bodies in the skies are formed of matter, 
and extremely hot. 



53 



TABLE A— ELEMENTARY SUBSTANCES 

Element Symbol Wt. 

Aluminum Al 26.9 

Antimony Sb 119.3 

Argon A 39.6 

Arsenic As 74.4 

Barium Ba 136.4 

Bismuth Ni 206.9 

Boron B 10.9 

Bromine Br 79.36 

Cadmum . Cd 111.6 

Caesium Ca 131.9 

Calcium Ca 39.8 

Carbon C 11.91 

Cerium Ce 139.2 

Chlorine CI 35.18 

Chromium Cr 51.7 

Colbat Co 58.56 

Copper Cu 63.1 

Erbium Er 164.8 

Flurine F 18.9 

Galolinium Gd 155. 

Gallium Ga 69.5 

Germanium Ge 71.9 

Gold Au 195.7 

Hellium He 4. 

Hydrogen H 1. 

Indium In 131.1 

Iodine I 125.9 

Iridum Jr 191.5 

Iron Fe 55.5 

Krypton Kr 81.2 

Lanthanum La 137.9 

Lead Pd 205.35 

Lithium Li 6.98 

Magnesium Mg 24.18 

Manganese : Mn 54.6 

Mercury Hg :198.5 

Molybdenum Mo 95.3 

Neodvmium Nd 142.5 

Neon Ne 19.9 

54 



Element Symbol Wt. 

Nickel Ni 58.3 

Nitrogen JN 13.93 

Osmium Os 189.6 

Oxygen 15.88 

Palladium Pd 105.7 

Phosphorus P 30.77 

Platinum Pt 193.3 

Potassium K 38.86 

Praseodyminum Pr 139.4 

Radium Ra 223.3 

Rhodium '. Rh 102.2 

Rubidium Rb 84.8 

Ruthenium Ru 100.9 

Samorium . Sm 148.9 

Scandium Sc 43.8 

Selenium Se 78.6 

Silicon Si 28.2 

Silver Ag 107.12 

Sodium Na 22.88 

Strontium Sr 86.94 

Sulphur S 31.83 

Tantalum Ta 181.6 

Tellurium Te 126.6 

Turbium Tb 158.8 

Thallium Tl 202.6 

Thorium Th 230.8 

Thulium Tm 169.7 

Tin Sn 118.1 

Titanium Ti 47.7 

Tungsten W 182.6 

Uranium U 236.7 

Vanadium V 50.8 

Xenon X 127. 

Yttrbium Yb 171.7 

Yttrium Yt 88.3 

Zink Zn 64.9 

Zirconium Zr 89.9 



:>.") 



FORCE AND MATTER 

Force is the life of matter, as matter with- 
out natural force must reduce to nothing. If 
force were removed from matter it would 
lose its heat; its temperature would fall to 
absolute zero (460 degrees below zero) ; it 
must lose the forces of Gravity and Inertia, 
and finally its loss of Cohesion must cause 
its disintegration to nothing, as even elec- 
trones could not exist under these condi- 
tions. 

So that material is matter under the con- 
trol of natural forces and may occupy three 
states, i. e., the Solid, Liquid and Gas, gov- 
erned by temperature and pressure. For in- 
stance, Ice is a solid, Water is a liquid and 
Steam is a gas. This is true of all materials, 
whether the material be an element or a mix- 
ture. A material cannot change from the 
solid to the gas state without first passing 
through the liquid state, notwithstanding 
that a match will burn up without melting, 
for it is impossible to distill a gas from a 
solid material. 

Many useful materials are compounded or 
alloyed by mixing or fusing together differ- 
ent elements in different proportions so that 
two materials may contain the same elements 

56 



^**< 



s 



V 






N 



\ 



\ 



\ 






/ / 

/ / 

/ 



/ / 



fe J 



/■/.// 

1 1 J / \ \ \ 

V .1 1 1 



/ 



l Ml 

\ \\\ J / / 






I ' / o 



\ \ ■ / > / 



^^ 



\ \ 1 / 



N \ t / 



// / 



// / 







but differ greatly in their characteristics, due 
to difference in proportion and method of 
manufacture. 

Some materials may be magnetically polar- 
ized, others form better electric conductors, 
while still others form electric insulators, so 
that as we are more or less familiar with the 
adaptability of materials for electrical appli- 
ances. This branch will not be discussed here. 



........ 



:.•••••••••..: 



58 



SOLAR MAGNETISM 

Fig. 14. Is a graphic description of the 
magnetic circuit between the Sun and the 
Planets, the arrow indicating the location of 
the pole star, to which the axis of all bodies 
in the Solar System are directed. As stated 
before, this condition is not maintained by 
virtue of the Pole Star, but by virtue of the 
Magnetic System controlled by the Sun. 
Gravitation, Inertia and Centrifugal forces 
cause the Vortex formation of the Solar Sys- 
tem, and the Magnetic lines of force controls 
the axis stability of the bodies. Variations 
of magnetic intensity in the Sun (caused by 
violent solar outburts, or sun spots) effects 
the magnetic equilibrium of all the bodies in 
the Solar System. 

Lines of force are seen to extend from 
the Sun to all the Major Planets, while the 
Satellites are within the magnetic controlling 
zone of the Major Planets. The resultant 
polarity of the Major Planets are opposite to 
the polarity of the Sun and Satellites. 

It will therefore be noticed that the North 
Pole of the Planets, and the South Pole of the 
Sun and Satellites point in the direction of the 
Pole Star, which correctly follows the law 
of magnetism. 

59 



The condition shown here is the result of 
the Magnetic Permanency of the bodies, as 
proven by the compass on Earth, and it fol- 
lows that a law proven on Earth is a truth 
with every other body in the Solar System. 
All bodies are therefore permanent magnets, 
possessing the quality of "Loadstone/' and 
owing to the great mass of the Sun, it is 
the central and controlling magnet of the 
Solar System. 

(Note. — Some writers attribute the action 
of the Solar System to Gyroscopic Action, but 
it is hard to understand how all the bodies 
within the system can act independently and 
all retain the same relative plane.) 



GO 



SOLAR MAGNETIC CONTROL 

Fig. 15. Is a practical demonstration of 
magnetic action between three magnets, 
representing the Sun, Earth and Moon. 

Law of Magnetism : 

Like poles repel each other, 
Unlike poles attract each other. 
Three electromagnets arranged with their 
polarities as shown in the photograph, i. e., 
the North Pole of the Earth aligned with the 
South Pole of the Sun and Moon. Rings are 
drawn on the card to represent the three 
bodies. Iron fillings are distributed on the 
card and the current turned on. A slight 
jarring of the card permitted the iron fillings 
to assume the position as shown. It will be 
noticed that the lines of force from the Sun 
do not pass through the Moon, but are op- 
posed by the Moon's own polarity. However, 
the magnetic lines between the Sun and the 
Earth are very complete. The lines between 
the Earth and Moon are also very complete. 
Each body being a magnet it must be clear 
that the Moon is within the magnetic zone 
of the Earth, while the Earth is within the 
magnetic zone of the Sun, so that even if 
the Moon be closest to the Sun, it is still with- 

61 



Fig. ]5. 



/ 


X 


\ 




\ 


SUN 






\ 


' 







Solar Magnetic Control. 



62 



Fig. 16. 




Solar Magnetic Control. 



63 



in the controlling zone of the Earth and can- 
not be influenced by the Sun, as clearly shown 
by the polarity of the bodies. 

The demonstration clearly shows that the 
Earth cannot be alone, as a magnetic body, 
nor could it be magnetically controlled by any 
other body than the Sun. 

Fig. 16. Is a duplicate of the former 
demonstration except that the Moon holds the 
position farthest from the Sun. The mag- 
netic lines are seen to extend from the Sun 
to the Earth, but do not extend to the Moon, 
while the lines of force from the Earth ex- 
tend to both Sun and Moon, correctly follow- 
ing the law of magnetism. 

The Earth's magnetic zone being clearly 
shown as extending some distance toward 
the magnetic zone of the Sun, and it is within 
this magnetic zone of the Earth that the 
Moon travels. The orbit of the Moon around 
the Earth is on the same plane as the Earth's 
equator. The magnetic conditions as shown 
between the Sun, Moon and Earth is an exact 
counterpart of the magnetic condition 
throughout the Solar System, as the accom- 
panying photographs are Magnetism's own 
answer. 

61 



TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM 

Lines of force enter and leave the poles of 
all magnetic bodies in a spray or fountain 
formation. A portion leaving the Earth take 
a wide curve and return to the Sun; others 
complete their circuit through the Moon, 
while a large portion flows over and through 
the Earth's surface to the South Pole. The 
presence of magnetism may be detected at 
any point on the Earth's surface by the use 
of a compass. 

It is this magnetic flow from North to 
South Pole over the surface of the Earth that 
makes Electrical Energy on Earth possible. 
It is this magnetism that guides the mariner 
and turn the wheels of industry. Its supply 
from the universal storehouse should dispel 
any fear of a shortage, as the supply is un- 
limited and the Universal System so well 
balanced that any demand made by humanity 
on Earth will be promptly furnished, with no 
inconvenience to the source of supply. 

The magnetic North Pole of the Earth is 
situated at King Williams Island, in Northern 
Canada, about 1,400 miles south of the geo- 
graphical North Pole. At this point the dip- 
ping needle points down to the center of the 
Earth. The compass is neutral at this point. 



The Earth's magnetic permanency is con- 
clusive proof that magnetism is not a manu- 
factured or transformable force, but is an 
unerring and unchangeable Natural Force 
that traverses the Universe. Its use by man 
constitutes only a borrow. It is not ours at 
all. Its nature does not even permit us to re- 
turn it, but insists on returning to the Uni- 
versal Field of itself when released. 

The most discussed question in Electricity 
by writers has been the source and nature of 
Magnetism ; that it was a local dormant en- 
ergy and only required waking up, or that 
it was active in material at all times and only 
needed to be straightened out ; even its gener- 
ation has been strongly advanced. However, 
the source and nature of magnetism now 
seems firmly established (as shown in the 
magnetic demonstrations 15-16) and it will 
be our ambition to analyze and apply all the 
natural forces that contribute to electricity. 

The Earth's magnetic South Pole is situ- 
ated about 1,250 miles north of the geo- 
graphical South Pole, and on almost a direct 
line south of Melbourne, Australia. The 
North and South Poles are not diametically 
opposite to each other. The exact positions 
are: 

66 



North Pole, lat. 70' 5.2, Ion. 96' 45.8 W., lo- 
cated by Capt. James Ross in June, 1831. 

South Pole, lat, 72' 23. S., Ion. 154' E., lo- 
cated by Prof. Edward Davis and Mr. Douglas 
Marson, January, 1908. 




67 



ELECTRICAL DEVELOPMENT 

Commercial electricity is comparatively 
new to the people of the world. Commercial 
development dates from 1831. By this time 
all the elementary facts and principles upon 
which the science of electricity is founded 
had been discovered. In 1752, Benjamin 
Franklin discovered the electric spark. In 
1779, Alessandro Volta laid the foundation of 
electrical science. In 1802, Sir Humphry 
Davy discovered the electric arc. In 1831, 
Michael Faraday invented the electric dy- 
namo. 

With the exception of the invention of Tele- 
graphy by S. F. B. Morse, there followed a 
period of 47 years of electric inactivity, when 
the real work began by the invention of the 
Shunt winding for Arc Lamps by Charles F. 
Brush in 1878. This was followed by the in- 
vention of the Incandescent Lamp by Thomas 
A. Edison in the same year. In 1880 the first 
trolley patent was taken out by S. D. Field, 
and in 1887, the first trolley road was oper- 
ated in Richmond, Va. Numerous investi- 
gators and inventors have contributed to elec- 
trical progress whose identity have been 
swallowed up in the current of electrical 
events. However, through persistent ex- 
es 



perimenting, invention and practical appli- 
cation, electrical appliance has become stand- 
ardized throughout the world, the advance 
having been so rapid that in 40 years, from 
mere experimental toys, electrical appliance 
has become the most practical and efficient 
means of light and power generation and 
transmission on Earth, supplying not only the 
comforts and conveniences, but establishing 
a real necessity to humanity, while the busi- 
ness has grown to be the most powerful com- 
mercial giant in the world, and today gives 
employment to over five per cent, of the popu- 
lation of the nation. 

Electricity recommends itself for its effi- 
ciency, cleanliness, flexibility, adaptability, 
generation and transmission, in which it is 
in a class by itself. No other form of energy 
can be adapted to so many varied uses. Teleg- 
raphy, Lighting, Power, Heating, Plating, 
Welding, Traction, Bleaching, Medical and 
many other uses, and while the fundamental 
principles of electricity cannot and will not be 
altered or changed, we may look for further 
practical application of electricity in the 
future. 

60 



Fig. 17 







Forces of Electricity. 



70 



FORCES OF ELECTRICITY 

Electricity is a name used to express elec- 
trical phenomena, which consists of a com- 
bination of four Natural Forces. The ab- 
sence of any one defeats the others and ren- 
ders electricity void (expressed in the Elec- 
trical Cartoon Fig. 17.) 

Electricity consists of : 

(Flash) — Electromotive Force, or Volt- 
age, or Potential (ENERGY). 

(Letters) — C urrent, orAmperes 

(PHYSICAL ACTION). 

(Arrows) — Magnetism, or Lines of 

Force (POWER). 

(Demon) — Resistance, Ohmic and Induc- 
tive (COHERENT OPPOSITION). 

In the use of electricity for producing 
power, magnetism is the most prominent 
factor. 

In the transmission of electricity, electro- 
motive force is the most prominent factor. 

In electric lighting, heating and welding, 
current is the most prominent factor. 

Resistance is the common electrical barrier 
that must be overcome to secure electrical 
activitiy. 

Electricity requires a conducting medium 
or a material on which to act. 

71 



Magnetism alone requires no conductor, as 
it is a Universal Force and travels freely be- 
tween magnetic poles. 

Current is atomic vibration of material and 
could not be present in absolute vacuum. 

Electromotive Force is active only in 
closed circuits of matter. 

The constituent forces of electricity may 
be active separately, under which condition 
they are not electrical. 



»•• •••••_ „•••••« _••••• ••••• ■ 

•••• • •• • •• • •• •* •••• 

/ \ 
••.;. :: ..v 



ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE 

Fig. 17. Electromotive force is a purely 
local natural force and is the real life of elec- 
tricity. It is the electrical vitality set up 
by the generator to overcome the cohesive 
resistance of the material circuit, and is the 
energy of electrical atomic vibration. 

Electromotive force may be set up by dif- 
ferent means : Dynamically, Chemically, 
Frictional and Thermostatic, but can exist 
only in closed circuits, even if only the air 
form the circuit, electromotive force cannot 
be set up through a perfect vacuum. Geis- 
sler tubes, or X-ray tubes became inactive 
when discharged too far, and a perfect 
vacuum is impervious to electric discharge. 

Notwithstanding the success of Radio 
Telegraphy on Earth, the possibility of elec- 
trical communication with celestial bodies, 
through other means than magnetism, seems 
very remote, in view of a Universal Vacuum. 

The function of electromotive force is to 
overcome resistance of and excite electrical 
atomic vibration in the material of the cir- 
cuit, in proportion to its applied energy, and 
may be understood as an agitating stress or 
pressure. 



Electromotive force has a direction of 
travel, within a conductor, the reversal of 
which reverses the magnetic polarity of all 
parts of the circuit. It acts with the speed of 
light, or 186,000 miles per second. Variation 
of voltage in the circuit will affect its energy 
but not its speed of action ; is not a Universal 
force, but local, and confined to its own cir- 
cuit, which may consist of matter in the Solid, 
Liquid or Gas state. 

The presence of electromotive force is de- 
tected only through manifestations of elec- 
tric current, and may be raised to unlimited 
strength. Its direction of flow may be caused 
to pulsate or alternate with extreme rapidity. 
It cannot be measured except through its 
product (current) and is entitled to the term 
"Spirit of Electric Power/' 



74 



CURRENT 

Fig. 17. Electric current is a purely local 
natural force, which consists of electro- 
atomic vibration of matter, induced by elec- 
tromotive force within a circuit. 

The atoms of the material are caused to 
vibrate in such a manner as to cause friction 
or impact between them, resulting in heat and 
magnetic attraction. 

Current is more active in some materials 
than others ; that is, there is more atomic 
activity in Iron or German Silver wire than in 
Copper wire of given size and length, with 
the same current strength, owing to the 
higher resistance of the former. Electric 
light and heat is the result of current, or 
atomic vibration, the effect being proportional 
to the current activity at that point. 

Current is the electric factor which pro- 
duces the Incandescent, Arc and Glow Lights. 
Electric Furnaces, Heaters and Welding are 
its products, and in every case where heat 
manifests itself in an electric circuit, it is the 
result of current, or electro-atomic vibration 
set up by electromotive force. 

The heating of electrical appliances such as 
Dynamos, Motors, Transformers, etc., is due 
entirely to atomic action or current, and not 



Fig. 18. 



ELECTRO MAGNET 




Magnetism. 



70 



to magnetism as thought by some; magnet- 
ism possessing no power to cause heat, hav- 
ing a separate and distinct function from that 
of current. 

Current has also the peculiar inherent 
power to attract magnetic lines of force from 
the Universal Field. Lines of force gather 
about and circulate around the conductor in 
which current is active. The quantity of lines 
of force collecting around a conductor is al- 
ways in proportion to the atomic activity or 
current strength, no matter what the size 
or resistance of the conductor may be. 



:••........••: 



77 



MAGNETISM 

Fig. 18. Magnetism is a Natural Energy 
that traverses the Universe and is known as 
lines of force. The lines are the paths in which 
the force travels, and may be straight or 
curved, but always extend from a north to a 
south magnetic pole when free ; they may be 
explained as lines in which imponderable 
parts or Rays of Force travel. Each ray pos- 
sesses North and South Polarity. Their 
movement is always in the direction of their 
North Polarity. A bar of soft iron, one inch 
in area, is said to be saturated when 200,000 
lines of force are passing through. 

Magnetic lines of force travel at the speed 
of light, or 186,000 miles per second; a re- 
spective line of force may circulate in a mag- 
net for a long time or may make one circuit, 
pass off and be taken up by another magnet at 
a great distance from the first. The lines 
leaving the magnet at acute angle will de- 
scribe a small circuit through the air to again 
reach the other pole of the magnet, but lines 
leaving the magnet in line with the axis of 
the core, may never return to that magnet 
again. Lines of force separate or repel each 
other when free, and concentrate when pass- 
ing through an iron core; this is due to the 

78 



better magnetic conductivity of the iron than 
the air. 

Magnetism is the chief component in elec- 
tric power, or the ability of electricity to do 
dynamic work, and is directly responsible for 
our many power conveniences : Electric 
Traction, Factory Power, Magnetic Hoist, 
Dynamic Generation of Electricity, Transfor- 
mation of Alternating Current and many 
others. 

Lines of force are attracted mostly by f erro 
metals, in which it concentrates and produces 
magnetic polarity, but passes freely through 
all other materials ; we know of no magnetic 
insulator. Magnetic screens, used about 
watches and electrical instruments, are them- 
selves magnetic conductors, and simply con- 
duct the interfering magnetism past the 
instrument. 

Magnetic lines of force may be intercepted 
for use but cannot be stored in any way that 
would stop their activity. 

Magnetism may be localized in a permanent 
magnet, but by heating the magnet to a point 
where the cohesion between the atoms is de- 
stroyed, will release the magnetism which 
returns to the Universal Field. Magnetism 
may also be localized in a Dynamo, Motor, 

79 



Transformer, Electro-magnets or appliance 
of any kind, but will promptly return to the 
Universal Field again when the current is 
shut off. 

So that no matter, how or where magnet- 
ism might manifest itself, it is not fixed or 
permanent at that point, but is only a local 
concentration of lines of force which return 
again to the Universal Field when released; 
it follows that magnetism is not a local or 
generated force, but simply a borrowed 
Natural Force, unstintingly supplied to ful- 
fill the requirements of electricity on Earth. 



• v. -• • 

• • • • 

• • • • 



80 



RESISTANCE 

Fig. 17. Resistance is the Atomic Repul- 
sion of Matter, or the lack of Cohesion. When 
the atoms of a conductor are at rest the re- 
sistance is zero. A disturbance of the atoms 
causes resistance. 

Vibrations of the atoms of matter may be 
caused by applying heat, or electromotive 
force, either of which weaken the bond of co- 
hesion between the atoms and cause move- 
ment between them. In their movement they 
repel each other and cause resistance to the 
applied force. 

An increase of force causes an increase in 
atomic vibration and repulsion between the 
atoms, further increasing the resistance. 

Therefore any force which tends to increase 
atomic action in matter, increases the resist- 
ance of that matter. The intensity of appli- 
cation determines the extent of resistance. 

However, all metals differ in physical struc- 
ture, and at normal temperatures a metal may 
have a very high atomic action, and a corre- 
spondingly higher resistance than other 
metals. For instance, the Specific Heat of 
Cast Iron is 0.1298, and that of Copper, 
0.0951. Cast Iron therefore contains 26% 

81 



more heat than Copper at normal temperature 
and therefore has a greater normal atomic 
action and resistance. 

The resistance of liquids is higher than 
solids and extremely high in gases. 

Atomic Repulsion is therefore the resist- 
ance to Electro-Atomic Vibration or Current, 
and must be overcome by Electromotive Force 
in order to induce a current in the circuit. 

The value of resistance is determined by 
Ohms Law : 

Resistance equals Electromotive force di- 
vided by Current. 



82 



Having reviewed the constituent parts of 
Electricity it must be concluded that: 

First. Electromotive Force is the prime 

energy of electricity, and is a local natural 
force. 

Second. Current is the atomic vibration of 
matter and a local natural force. 

Third. Magnetism is magnetic lines of 
force and belongs to the Universal Field of 
magnetism. 

Fourth. Resistance is the atomic repul- 
sion or hindrance to current and is a local 
natural force. 

It will, therefore, be seen that with the 
exception of magnetism, Electricity is purely 
a local affair. A generator sets up an Elec- 
tromotive Force in a circuit, which in turn 
sets in motion the atoms of the material of the 
conductor, against the resistance of atomic 
repulsion. Magnetic lines of force collect 
from the Universal Magnetic Field and are set 
to work. This combination of forces and con- 
ditions forms ELECTRICITY. 

83 



HEAT 

Electric action will be better understood 
by a short review of the Specific or Heat State 
of materials as used in electrical appliances. 

Heat (like Electricity) is a name to express 
a compound of Natural Forces, which consist 
of Atomic Vibration and Radiant Energy, 
which act only in conjunction with each other. 

Heat appears in two states, viz. : 

First. Heat of Atomic Vibration, set up 
by Radiant Energy. 

Second. Heat of Radiant Energy, set up 
by Atomic Vibration. 

In the first case, applied heat sets up atomic 
vibration in the material, which continues to 
grow more violent so long as energy is being 
absorbed. 

In the second case, the atomic vibration 
generates heat, which continues to discharge 
so long as the atomic vibrations are above nor- 
mal for that temperature. 

Therefore the heating of a bar of iron, is of 
the first state, as the applied heat causes 
atomic vibration, while electrical heat is of 
the second state, as atomic vibration causes 
the heat. 

84 



At ordinary or normal temperature, all ma- 
terials have a fixed atomic vibration, due to 
their Specific Heat capacity and belong to the 
first state. But a further agitation of the 
atoms, as by Electricity, will place the ma- 
terial in the second state. 

As stated before, a material may occupy 
three states — the solid, liquid and gaseous. 
Now, if all heat were removed from a mate- 
rial, it would have a temperature of 460 de- 
grees below zero. At this temperature all 
materials, including Air, Gas and Liquids of 
all kinds and consistency, would become Solid 
and the atoms would be at rest. But when 
heat is applied (as in first state) cohesive at- 
traction would be reduced and the atoms begin 
to vibrate, as more heat is applied to the 
material, the atomic vibration increases, un- 
til our normal terrestrial temperature is 
reached. At this temperature we find that 
different materials have different physical 
states, due to their nature and specific heat 
capacity. For instance, Water becomes a 
liquid at 32 degrees above zero; Copper is 
still a solid and will liquefy at 2,000 degrees 
above zero; Air becomes a gas at 312 degrees 
below zero. (The solidifying point of Air is 
unknown.) 

85 



From the above it will be understood that 
the materials used in electrical appliances 
(and with all other materials) already pos- 
sess atomic vibration at normal temperatures, 
due to their Specific Heat capacity, and any 
additional atomic vibration induced by elec- 
tricity, above their normal activity, is known 
as Electro Atomic Vibration, which begins at 
the normal state of the material. 



^ 

^ 



86 



DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY 

With the foregoing understanding of elec- 
tricity it will be interesting to review the 
mode of Dynamic Electro Generation. 

We are told that "Cutting of lines of force 
produce electromotive force in a wire," the 
act of cutting lines of force being likened to 
the "Linking and Unlinking of a chain." 

Let us assume that magnetism consists of 
a single line or thread of force, wrapped 
through the magnet many thousand times, or 
that each line of force form a single circuit of 
its own, then the cutting process would seem 
to destroy a link and open the magnetic cir- 
cuit. The repair of the link and line would 
seem unnatural to a natural force. Again if 
we assume that the lines of force are made up 
of countless small magnetic DARTS or RAYS 
(as explained above) then the unlinking pro- 
cess would seem to disintegrate and brake up 
the magnetic flow and destroy the function of 
magnetism. 

The fact is that magnetic lines of force can- 
not be cut or unlinked by a conductor moving 
across their path, and any deviation from 
their path of travel can be affected only by 
magnetism's own law of Attraction and Re- 
pulsion, or by Electro Atomic Vibration. For 



Fig. 19. 



ELECTROMOTIVE TORCE 
/. St. 




Hi 





Process of Generation. 
88 



these reasons electromotive force is not gen- 
erated by cutting or linking and unlinking of 
lines of force. 

Dynamic Electromotive Force is generated 
by Magnetic Undulation within a closed cir- 
cuit, i. e., Increase and Decrease in the quan- 
tity of magnetic lines through a closed cir- 
cuit or loop. The mere moving of a wire 
through a field of magnetism generates noth- 
ing. The wire must form part of a closed cir- 
cuit or loop, in which the quantity of mag- 
netic lines of force must vary or alternate in 
direction to secure electromotive force within 
the wire. 

It will be understood that magnetic lines of 
force cannot be distorted or interferred with 
except through the course of its own law or 
Electro Atomic Vibration. Therefore, the 
wires passing through a magnetic field would 
not cut or unlink the magnetic lines of force, 
but the lines of force will pass through the 
wires as freely as the space occupied by the 
wires. 

In Dynamos the loops of wire are arranged 
on an armature core, arranged to revolve in 
a magnetic field, in such a way as to cause the 
quantity of lines of force through the loops 
to alternate from one polarity extreme to the 

89 



other. During this process the quantity of 
lines of force passing through the loops grad- 
ually build up to full capacity, and then fall 
off again to zero. By the turning of the loop 
on its axis the lines of force enter the loop 
from the other side and build up in quantity 
through the loop (in the reversed direction 
from the first) to full capacity, and fall off 
again to zero, as in the first instance. 

It is this undulation of quantity through 
a closed circuit or loop that generates elec- 
tromotive force, and is minutely explained 
under the head of Process of Generation. 



90 



PROCESS OF GENERATION 

The process of electromotive force genera- 
tion is clearly shown in Fig. 19, in which a 
loop of wire is arranged to revolve in a mag- 
netic field between the North and South poles 
of a dynamo. 

The loop is shown in four positions. In the 
first all the magnetic lines of force are passing 
through the loop. In the second no lines are 
passing through. In the third, all lines are 
again passing through the loop, but in the 
opposite direction from the first. In the 
fourth no lines pass through the loop. 

The loops form a closed circuit through the 
small connecting wire as shown. 

To gain a better understanding the follow- 
ing rules are offered: 

First. In the generation of electromotive 
force the strength of electromotive force 
varies with the RATE of INCREASE or DE- 
CREASE in the QUANTITY of magnetic 
lines of force leaving or entering a closed cir- 
cuit. 

Second. The DECREASE of magnetism of 
ONE polarity, and the INCREASE of magnet- 
ism of the OTHER polarity, through a closed 
circuit or loop, generates electromotive force 
in the SAME direction. 

91 



It will now be seen that in turning the loop 
from 1 to 2 all the lines of force are expelled, 
and from 2 to 3 all are again received within 
the loop. But as the loop has moved one-half 
turn the lines of force pass through in the 
opposite direction, the rate of decrease and 
increase being highest when passing to and 
from the position 2, and lowest when passing 
3 (as shown in the curve below) . 

During the first half turn (from 1 to 3) the 
generated electromotive force is in the direc- 
tion shown by the arrow in (2). During the 
last half turn the electromotive force is in 
the opposite direction shown in (4) . It will be 
noted that the direction of electromotive force 
during the first and second half turns respec- 
tively, are contrary or alternating in the loop. 
This is true with all armatures, and in all elec- 
tric generators or motors, but in Direct Cur- 
rent Dynamos or Motors a commutator is pro- 
vided on the shaft to commute the electromo- 
tive force to flow in the one direction. 

During the above process the lines of force 
are not cut or unlinked by the movement of 
the conductor through its field, but the lines 
of force pass as freely through the conductors 
as the space occupied by the conductors. The 
maximum electromotive force is generated 

92 



Fig. 20. 



RHEOSTAT VOLT METER AMMETER 

D.C. 

GENERATOR 




Direct Current Dynamo. 



93 



when the flow through the loop is zero, or 
when the magnetism through the loop is 
changing direction, and minimum when the 
loop encloses the full field of magnetism. Dur- 
ing a short period at this point (1 and 3) the 
number of lines of force passing through the 
loop undergo no change, and no electro- 
motive force is generated in this particular 
loop during this period, as shown by the char- 
acteristic curve. 

It will be understood from this that an 
armature with many turns or loops of wire 
connected to a commutator, and provided with 
collector brushes, will generate a direct elec- 
tromotive force in a Dynamo, better known as 
Direct Current. 



94 



DIRECT CURRECT DYNAMO 

Fig. 20. The most simple form of electric 
generator is the Bi-Pole Direct Current Gen- 
erator, as it is the least complicated and at 
the same time embodies all the essential feat- 
ures included in the generation of electricity 
and forms the ground work of all electric gen- 
erators, no matter what their design or pur- 
pose. 

Our object now is to learn the electric ac- 
tion within a dynamo during its operation, 
and in order to get a full understanding the 
dynamo will be examined at rest. 

The stationary field frame consists of Cast 
Iron. The field poles are provided with field 
coils, made up of many turns of fine wire. A 
Rheostat (resistance) is connected in the field 
circuit. A few turns of main circuit wire is 
wound on the field poles in addition to the 
field coils (which constitutes compounding). 

The armature consists of a soft iron core, 
made up in thin sheets or discs of soft iron or 
steel. Slots around the face of the armature 
are provided to receive the winding. The 
winding forms loops with their ends connected 
to the segments of a commutator that is fixed 
to and revolves with the shaft. 

95 



A Volt Meter is connected to the main wires 
leaving the machine. The Ampere Meter is 
placed in the main circuit leaving the dynamo. 
The main wires extend to the floor posts and 
a main switch is not shown. 

Now, owing to the magnetic permanency of 
Cast Iron, the field frame retains a small quan- 
tity of Residual Magnetism, which remained 
in the frame from the last run of the dynamo. 
(New dynamos or dynamos that have lost or 
changed their magnetism are charged with 
Residual Magnetism by passing a current 
through their field winding.) 

At this point it will be noticed that the field 
winding (containing the Rheostat) is in cir- 
cuit with the armature and ready to be ex- 
cited by the armature. 

The engine is now started and the arma- 
ture brought up to speed. The residual mag- 
netism in the field frame which is passing 
through the armature core, from the N to the 
S pole of the field frame, induces a small elec- 
tromotive force in the armature coils which is 
conducted to the commutator, from which it is 
collected by the brushes to which the main 
wires are connected. As the field circuit is 
connected to the main wires, this small elec- 
tromotive force passing through the field 

06 



winding, sets up atomic action (or current) in 
the armature and field wires, which atomic 
action attracts magnetic lines of force from 
the surrounding media to the dynamo, which 
are added to the residual magnetism already 
there, the effect being to strengthen the field 
magnetism. The armature now responds to 
the stronger field magnetism and generates 
higher electromotive force, which is con- 
ducted to the field winding, causing additional 
atomic vibration and building up of magnet- 
ism until a balance results between the arma- 
ture speed and the generative power against 
the resistance of the field circuit. At this 
point the Voltmeter may show only a few 
volts, which is an indication that the dynamo 
is 0. K. and ready to build up. 

To build the voltage to the required point, 
the Rheostat is moved to second notch. This 
action cuts out a section of resistance and 
lowers the resistance of the field circuit, per- 
mitting a further building up of electromotive 
force in the armature, which acts to further 
strengthen the field magnetism, as explained 
above. The Rheostat is further advanced and 
the building up process continues until the 
required voltage is shown by the Voltmeter. 



From the above we find that the resistance 
of the field winding is adjusted to admit suffi- 
cient electromotive force to the field coils 
to secure proper field magnetization to gener- 
ate the required electromotive force, with a 
constant speed of the armature. 

The conditions now are: The armature is 
at full speed, the field is at full magnetic 
strength, the Rheostat has nearly all resist- 
ance cut out, the Voltmeter shows the re- 
quired voltage. 

The main switch (not shown) is now 
thrown in, thus connecting the external cir- 
cuit to the dynamo. The Ampere Meter and 
the Series field winding are now in circuit. 

Now as the load was put on the dynamo a 
very heavy current demand is made on the 
armature. The armature current sets up a 
strong armature polarity of its own (as shown 
in Fig. 20) , the North and South pole positions 
of which are such as to act as a brake on the 
forward rotation of the armature, causing the 
engine to work harder and drop slightly in 
speed, causing a drop in the voltage. To com- 
pensate for this drop in speed more field re- 
sistance is cut out by the Rheostat and the 
voltage brought to normal. 

98 



However, as every fluctuation of load af- 
fects the voltage, requiring constant attention 
and readjustment of the Rheostat, a few 
turns of the main circuit are added to the 
field, which has the effect of strengthening 
the field magnetism by the increased current 
demand, and compensate for the drop in en- 
gine speed, thereby automatically maintain- 
ing a constant voltage through all phases of 
load. 

It will now be seen that during the process 
of electric generation, the magnetic field poles 
remain stationary, while the magnetic polar- 
ity of the armature is constantly changing. 
Without this alternating magnetic action in 
the armature, dynamic electricity would be 
impossible. It is the secret of dynamic gen- 
eration of electricity. 

The dynamo generates nothing but Electro- 
motive Force, which in turn has but one func- 
tion, 'The generation of Atomic Vibration." 

With a steady load on the dynamo, the elec- 
tromotive force is in constant process of gen- 
eration. The current or atomic vibration 
within the dynamo and external circuit is in 
a constant state of activity. The lines of 
force in the dynamo and all parts of the cir- 
cuit fluctuate with the demand, while per- 

99 



forming their function, while resistance holds 
the system within bounds. 

When prepared to shut down, the main 
switch is opened, the electromotive force in 
the external circuit stops, followed by the 
stopping of atomic activity in the circuit, and 
releasing the magnetic lines of force which 
dissipate to the Universal Field. 

At this time the maximum speed and volt- 
age of the dynamo is still maintained (if the 
load was high when taken off, then the voltage 
will be somewhat higher, owing to the in- 
creased engine speed on light load) . The field 
magnetism is as strong as when first started, 
the Rheostat is now moved back to first notch, 
the voltage now falls to a low point. During 
this fall of voltage the atomic activity 
throughout the dynamo falls to a very low 
point, releasing nearly all the lines of force 
in the dynamo, which dissipate to the Univer- 
sal Field. As the dynamo is finally stopped all 
electromotive force and electro atomic activ- 
ity ceases, all magnetic lines of force have dis- 
sipated with the exception of a small quan- 
tity that remains in the field frame as Resid- 
ual Magnetism, due to the permanency of the 
cast iron, and this furnishes the means to 
again start the dynamo, as explained. 

100 



DIRECT CURRENT MOTOR 

In reviewing the action of a direct current 
motor, two sets of diagrams are necessary to 
illustrate the characteristics of both the dyna- 
mo and motor, separately for the reason that 
the magnetic conditions of the dynamo are 
present in the motor and act to automatically 
regulate the speed of the motor, by inducing 
a counter electromotive force in the armature 
of the motor, which has the effect to regulate 
the supply of current to the armature, and 
thereby regulate the power of the motor 
through all phases of load. 

The field or stationary part of the machine, 
whether used as dynamo (21) or motor (22), 
is magnetically charged to present North and 
South magnetic poles to the armature. The 
magnetism passing from the North pole of 
the field to the South pole of the field through 
the body of the armature is known as the 
magnetic field. 

The direct current motor (22) is the same 
in general construction and winding as the 
direct current dynamo (21), in fact a gener- 
ator may be used as a motor or vise versa, the 
difference being in the regulating appliance. 
The dynamo requires a regulating resistance 
in the field circuit (21). The motor requires 

101 



Fie. 21. 



B.C.CENERATOn. 




B. 

l!'I{llillDiiilulli|l|i"IU'i. 




C. 

!! MM' 




Direct Current Generator. 
102 



Fig. 22. 



D.C.MOTOn. 



STARTING BOX 







•i 



Direct Current Motor. 
103 



a starting resistance in the armature circuit 
(22). 

The field frame of a motor retains Residual 
Magnetism, but it is not essential in starting 
the motor, but it very necessary should the 
machine be used as a generator. 

Volt or Ampere Meters are not used with 
motors. 

To start the motor (22) the supply switch 
(not shown) is closed, the starting box lever 
is on first or blank contact. At this point no 
electricity is being furnished to the motor, 
but when the lever is moved to the second 
contact the motor is in circuit. The field cur- 
rent and magnetism are now at full strength 
and any further advance of the starting lever 
does not effect the field strength. However 
the resistance of the starting box being in the 
armature circuit, permits only a small current 
in the armature, or just enough to cause the 
armature to revolve slowly. Resistance is 
now cut out by further advance of the lever 
and more current is supplied to the armature, 
which causes stronger armature polarity 
(22-BB) and greater magnetic torque (or 
pull) between the armature and field magnet- 
ism (22-CC) and consequently increased speed 
of the armature. This process is continued 

104 



until all resistance of the starting box is cut 
out, and the motor is up to speed. The small 
magnet on the starting box which is con- 
nected in the field circuit, now retains the 
lever in the running position. 

(The motor will now be examined from the 
standpoint of a dynamo.) 

Operated as a dynamo (21) the armature is 
revolving in a magnetic field, the field 
strength and armature speed being constant, 
the generated electromotive force in the ar- 
mature will be of fixed strength and direction, 
but the current within the armature in the 
process of generation, sets up a magnetic N. 
and S. polarity of its own (21-B) at points 
midway between the field poles N. and S., 
their relative positions being such as to cause 
a reverse motion of the armature as shown 
(21-C), which acts as a magnetic brake 
against the power of the engine. This gen- 
erated electromotive force in the armature is 
present by virtue of the armature's motion in 
a magnetic field, whether the armature be 
revolved by the power of an engine or by an 
electric current supplied to it. 

Therefore, the electromotive force in the 
armature of a generator is COUNTER elec- 
tromotive force in the armature of a motor. 

1 1 >;> 



(Now taking up the motor again in the 
running position.) 

In order to retain the same field polarity 
(22), the electromotive force is supplied to 
the motor armature in the opposite direction 
shown by arrows to that which it would gen- 
erate (the field conditions being the same in 
both cases). This causes North and South 
poles in the armature (22) contrary to that 
of the dynamo (21). The torque (or pull) now 
rotates the armature in the same direction as 
when used as a dynamo, but the fact that the 
armature is revolving in the same magnetic 
field, in the same direction and at the same 
speed, carries into the motor the same gener- 
ating power as when used as a dynamo, which 
is known as Counter Electromotive Force, its 
effect in the motor being to oppose or resist 
the entrance of supplied electromotive force 
to the armature. 

With the losses due to friction and other 
causes, the speed of the motor is not so high 
as that of the dynamo with the same electro- 
motive force, so that the counter electromo- 
tive force must be lower than the supply to 
permit a sufficient amount in the armature to 
operate the motor. The effective electromo- 
tive force supplied to the armature is there- 

106 



fore the difference between the supplied and 
counter electromotive forces. 

It will now be understood that when load 
is added, the speed lowers, the counter elec- 
tromotive force decreases, the greater activ- 
ity of the supplied electromotive force 
strengthens the armature magnetism to carry 
the load. The reverse is true when reducing 
the load. The regulation is purely automatic 
within the armature of the motor, and is a 
mutual balancing between the supplied and 
counter electromotive force and the speed of 
the motor. 

With motors of the above class, the varia- 
tion in speed is execessive, but is overcome by 
placing a few turns of main circuit wire 
around the field pole, which has the effect of 
strengthening the field magnetism when load 
is added, or vise versa, to maintain a more 
regular speed of the motor. 

To shut down the motor (22) the switch is 
opened. The small magnet on the starting 
box retains the lever in the running position 
for a short time for the following reason : 

At the instant the switch is opened the sup- 
plied electromotive force falls off. The arma- 
ture is still revolving at speed in the magnetic 
field (22) which has not yet dissipated, and 

1<>7 



while the supplied electromotive force is in 
the process of falling, the counter electromo- 
tive force proceeds to build up to full strength 
in the armature, supplying the field (which is 
seen to be still in circuit with the armature) 
with current. The motor is now operating as 
a generator (21), but as there is no means to 
keep it running, the speed quickly falls until 
the counter electromotive force is sufficiently 
low to release the starting lever, which is 
thrown back to zero by a spring. 

Without this control there would be a heavy 
arc formed at the switch and motor commu- 
tator, due to the strong counter effect, which 
would burn and destroy these parts in a very 
short time. 



108 



ALTERNATING CURRENT GENERATOR 

Alternating current differs from direct cur- 
rent in that the electromotive force reverses 
in direction through the circuit of flow, an 
impulse being generated in one direction and 
followed by an impulse in the other direction. 
Each impulse builds up from zero to full 
strength and falls to zero again. Each im- 
pulse constitutes an alternation, while a direct 
and an inverse pulsation constitute a cycle or 
phase. 

In the alternating current dynamo (23) 
there are an even number of field poles and a 
corresponding even number of armature 
poles (known as single phase machine). 

The field coils are arranged on the field 
poles and are connected to each other in series 
in such a way that the magnetic poles will be 
alternately North and South. The field wind- 
ing is supplied with Direct Current from a 
Direct Current generator or exciter. The out- 
put of the armature depends on the magnetic 
strength of the field and is regulated by the 
quantity of current in the field winding. An 
adjustable field resistance or Rheostat is used 
for this purpose. 

The armature coils are connected in the 
same manner as the field coils, the final ends 

109 



Fig. 23. 



RHEOSTAT 



A.C.CENERATOR 

VOLT METER .AMMETER 



exciter 

CURRENT 



<^Si^ 




Alternating Current Generator. 



110 



Fig. 24. 




Process of Generation. (A. C. Current). 



Ill 



being connected to collector rings arranged 
on the shaft of the armature, and from which 
the alternating electromotive force is col- 
lected from the armature. 

The process of alternating current genera- 
tion is the same as with the direct current 
(19). In the drawing (24) the segment of 
the armature contains two poles with coils, 
moving in a section of the field frame. 

Position 1 — The armature and field poles 
are in line. A full charge of field magnetism 
is passing through the armature poles and 
coils. No electromotive force is generated at 
this point (as in 1, Fig. 19). 

Position 2 — The armature poles are mid- 
way between the field poles, and no magnet- 
ism is flowing through the armature poles or 
coils. The maximum electromotive force is 
generated at this point (as in 2, Fig. 19). 

Position 3 — The poles are again in line and 
a full charge of magnetism flows through the 
armature poles and coils, but in the reverse 
direction from (1). No electromotive force 
is being generated at this point (as in 3, Fig. 
19). 

Position 4 — The armature poles are again 
midway between the field poles, and no mag- 
netism is flowing through the armature poles 

112 



or coils. The maximum inverse electromotive 
force is generated at this point (as in 4, Fig. 
19). 

Position 5 — The conditions are the same as 
in position 1. During the movement from one 
field pole to the other (1 to 3) a direct current 
is generated in the armature. During the 
movement (3 to 5) an inverse current is gen- 
erated, and completes the cycle of Single 
Phase Alternating Current, as shown by the 
characteristic curve. 

Note — We can find no cutting, linking or 
unlinking of magnetic lines of force, by the 
wires, as the armature poles extend beyond 
the armature coils in all alternating current 
generators ; and at no time are the wires in a 
position to cut or be cut by lines of force. 

Alternating current is not commuted (as 
the direct current), but collected from the 
armature and delivered to the external circuit 
in its generated form. Alternating Current 
may consist of one, two or more phases, and 
may be of any desired frequency or intensity, 
by change in the number of poles, speed and 
winding. 

113 



ALTERNATING CURRENT MOTORS 

Alternating current motors are of two gen- 
eral classes — the Synchronious and Induction. 
They are manufactured for different phases 
and frenquencies. 

In the Synchronious type, the motor is 
brought to speed by local means. When the 
speed synchronizes with the alternations of 
the supplied current, the motor is connected 
to the line. 

In the Induction type the motor is brought 
to speed by the supplied current, through spe- 
cial winding and switch control. 

But with motors of all kind the funda- 
mental principles are the same as with the 
direct current motors, as already explained. 



114 



ALTERNATING CURRENT 
TRANSFORMER 

The great advantage of alternating current 
is its property of transformation, which is ac- 
complished through the medium of induction 
or Counter Electromotive Force. 

The transformer consists primarily of a 
closed magnetic circuit (25), which is built 
up of thin iron plates, capable of rapidly mag- 
netizing and de-magnetizing. Two separate 
coils of wire are arranged on the core. The 
primary coil is of many turns of fine wire. 
The secondary coil of few turns of heavy wire. 

We will first examine the primary coil and 
core alone. 

The high tension electromotive force sup- 
plied to the primary coil from the power house 
sets up an alternating magnetic polarity in 
the iron core, changing from one polarity ex- 
treme to the other. The effect of this alter- 
nating magnetism in the core is to set up a 
Counter Electromotive Force in the primary 
coil, which is in opposition to the phase of the 
supplied electromotive force (see curve). This 
has the effect of preventing or opposing the 
entrance of the primary electromotive force. 
The counter electromotive force (due to 

115 



Fig. 25. 

TRANS FORMER 
PRIMARY 



PRIMARY 



MAG NETIC 



Src«WD4ftY 




A. C. Transformer. 
116 



Fig. 20. 



TRANSMISSION 




A. C. Transmission. 



n; 



losses) is slightly lower than the primary elec- 
tromotive force, which permits the passage 
of a small fraction that keeps the effect alive. 

The secondary coil arranged on the same 
core receives the alternating induction set 
up by the primary current, and when a lamp 
in the secondary circuit is turned on, a portion 
of the counter electromotive force in the pri- 
mary coil at once finds an outlet (through the 
medium of induction) through the secondary 
coil, thereby relieving the primary coil of an 
equal amount of counter energy and permit- 
ting more activity of the primary current. The 
reverse is true when turning off lights, the 
whole regulation being automatic and self- 
contained through the medium of the closed 
magnetic circuit. 

Disregarding transformer losses, the pro- 
duct of the primary current is equal to the 
product of the secondary, i. e., if the primary 
coil has 10,000 turns of wire, and the second- 
ary 100 turns (or 100 to 1), the primary 
10,000 volts and 1 ampere, the secondary out- 
put will be 100 volts and 100 amperes. The 
product of each is 10,000 Watts. This ratio 
is maintained through all phases of the trans- 
former load. 

us 



It will be noticed here that the secondary 
current is generated in the same way as with 
the direct or alternating current generators, 
that is by magnetic undulation within a closed 
circuit. The lines of force in a transformer 
core do not leave the core during steady load, 
but simply alternate in their direction or flow 
within the closed core. All lines of force in 
the core do not reverse direction at the same 
time, but change in quantity with the current 
strength. The progress of magnetic change 
is slightly behind the current phase, and is 
known as a Lag. 

With a properly constructed transformer 
there is no leak or external magnetism with 
steady load. The secondary electromotive 
force in the coils is induced by the alternating 
magnetism within the core, and not by cutting 
lines of force, as the lines of force do not 
reach the coils, but are confined to the trans- 
former core. Lines of force are seen in the 
act of changing their direction in the mag- 
netic circuit, and are indicated at X-X in the 
curve diagram. 



119 



TRANSMISSION 

In the transmission of currents over long 
lines it has been found impractical to use 
Direct Current, owing to losses from ohmic 
resistance and high cost of heavy lines, and 
finally its inability of transformation with 
stationary appliance, so that alternating cur- 
rent is used exclusively for long distance 
transmission, as it can be transformed to any 
desired voltage of ampere, and for either heat, 
light or power. 

Fig. 26. The alternating current is gener- 
ated at the power house at low voltage and 
passed through a step-up transformer, in 
which a very high electromotive force is in- 
duced, in which state it passes over the trans- 
mission lines. On reaching its destination it 
passes through a step-down transformer, 
w^here it is again transformed to low tension 
for commercial use. 

With this arrangement, electromotive 
forces of 50,000 volts are transmitted for dis- 
tances of 200 miles, with very small inductive 
losses, owing to the very small current 
strength on the transmission lines. 

120 



ELECTRICAL TERMS 

A. C. (Alternating Current) — An electromo- 
tive force which alternately flows in oppo- 
site directions. 

AMPERE (Current) — Unit of atomic vibra- 
tion that will be caused by electromotive 
force of one volt against a resistance of one 
ohm. 

AMPERE TURNS— The number of turns of 
wire, multiplied by the number of amperes 
in the coil. 

ARMATURE — A soft iron core joining two 
poles of a magnet ; specifically, the roter of 
a dynamo or motor. 

ATOM — The smallest particle of matter that 
can exist. 

COMPOUND WINDING— Composed of two 
separate coils on the same core. 

CONDUCTOR— A substance that will permit 
the passage of electromotive force. 

COMMUTATOR— A ring of insulated seg- 
ments, to which the armature coils are at- 
tached, to commute electromotive force. 

D. C. (Direct Current) — An electromotive 
force which flows in a constant direction. 

DYNAMIC ELECTRICITY— The electrical 
cause or effect of motion. 

121 



EARTH MAGNETISM— A part of the Uni- 
versal Magnetic System. 

ELECTRIC ARC— The electric atomic vibra- 
tion of matter in the gaseous form. 

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT— A conducting path 
for electricity. 

ELECTRIC FURNACE— A furnace in which 
heat is generated by electric atomic vibra- 
tion. 

ELECTRICITY— The phenomena of electro 
natural force. 

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (E. M. F.)— A 
force which excites atomic vibration in 
matter. 

ENERGY— The power to do work. 

FORCE — Anything which changes or tends 
to change the condition of rest or motion 
in a body. 

GAS — An aeriform electric matter, tending 
to expand indefinitely. 

HEAT — Radiant energy, due to atomic vibra- 
tion of matter, or vise versa. 

HYSTERESIS— The ratio of magnetic induc- 
tion to the magnetizing force producing it. 

INCANDESCENT LIGHT— The glowing of a 
substance by means of electro atomic vibra- 
tion. 

122 



INDUCTION— Electromotive force set up by 

magnetism. 
KILO-WATT (K. W.)— 1,000 Watts (or volts 

times amperes). 
LINES OF FORCE— Magnetic lines or rays 

of force possessing polarity. 
LOADSTONE — Permanently magnetized 

iron ore. 
MAGNET — A magnetized iron bar or core. 
MAGNET COIL— A coil of wire which sur- 
rounds a magnet core. 
MAGNETIC FIELD— The region traversed 

by magnetic lines of force. 
MAGNETIC AXIS— A straight line drawn 

through a magnet, joining its poles. 

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT— A complete magnetic 
path. 

MAGNETISM— Lines or rays of magnetic 
force possessing polarity. 

MATTER — Anything that occupies space. 

MOTOR — A device for transforming electri- 
cal energy into mechanical power. 

NATURAL LAW— The cause of all natural 
phenomena. 

OHM — The unit of resistance that will permit 
a current of one ampere with an electromo- 
tive force of one volt. 



OHMS LAW — Current equals electromotive 
force divided by resistance. 

POLARITY — The resultant concentration of 
magnetic lines of force passing through a 
magnetized body. 

POWER FACTOR— The ratio of actual watts 
to the volt-amperes in alternating current. 

RESIDUAL MAGNETISM— Magnetism re- 
maining in the core after the current has 
been shut off. 

RESISTANCE— The expansive state, or en- 
larged sphere or field of atomic action. 

RELUCTANCE — Capacity for opposing mag- 
netic induction. 

RHEOSTAT— An adjustable resistance. 

SPECIFIC HEAT— The capacity of a sub- 
stance for heat, or atomic vibration. 

TERMINALS— The positive and negative 
ends of a circuit. 

TORQUE — The turning force of an armature. 

TRANSFORMER— A device for increasing or 
decreasing the electromotive force and am- 
pere of an alternating current. 

VACUUM — Space from which all traces of 
residual gas has been removed. 

VIBRATION— A to-and-fro motion of the 
particles of matter. 

124 



VOLT— Unit of electromotive force, that will 
cause a current of one ampere against a re- 
sistance of one ohm. 

WATT — The unit of electric power, the volt- 
ampere. 

ZONE (Magnetic) — The controlling area of a 
magnet. 




125 



SUMMARY 

The foregoing review offers the following 
conclusions : 

1. Magnetism is a Universal Natural 
Force. 

2. The Solar System is Magnetically con- 
trolled by the Sun. 

3. Magnetism is Imponderable Lines or 
Rays of Force, Possessing Polarity. 

4. Magnetism cannot be Generated, Trans- 
formed or Stored. 

5. Magnetism responds only to the Law of 
Attraction and Repulsion and to Electro 
Atomic Vibration. 

6. A Magnetic Circuit cannot be Opened, 
Cut or Unlinked. 

7. Electricity is a Combination of Natural 
Forces. 

8. Electricity does not Flow in a Circuit. 

9. A Dynamo Generates Electromotive 
Force only. 

10. Electromotive Force acts only on Mat- 
ter. 

11. Electromotive Force excites Atomic 
Vibration. 

12. Electro Atomic Vibration attracts 
lines of Force. 

126 



13. Electric Light and Heat is the product 
of Electro Atomic Vibration. 

14. Electromotive Force is the Vitality of 
Electricity. 

In addition it should be stated that Elec- 
tricity, no matter by what means it may be 
generated, or in what form, or under what 
condition it manifests itself, is but one and 
the same, and possesses all the fundamental 
elements of Dynamic Electricity. 



CONCLUSION 

In conclusion it must be evident that elec- 
tricity is a combination of Natural Forces, 
part Universal and part Terrestrial, part hav- 
ing a period of life and part being perpetual ; 
all combining to form ELECTRICITY, the 
most powerful, controllable and as under- 
standable as any of the mysterious works of 
the Natural Forces, notwithstanding the vari- 
ous conflicting theories and hypothesis ad- 
vanced by scientists in the past. 

There can be but one function for each Nat- 
ural Force, and each force stands alone to do 
its part, and in this great natural power the 



failure of any one part defeats ELECTRIC- 
ITY. 

It has been the ambition of the author 
throughout the review of Fundamental Elec- 
tricity, to submit an explanation based on 
practical facts, to simplify and make plain to 
the reader such points that have made Elec- 
tricity a mysterious and unfathomable mon- 
ster, by the wrong teachings of its funda- 
mental principles and at the same time to 
avoid friction with the well established art 
and science of electricity. 

And it is with the desire that the knowledge 
so gained would stimulate further practical 
effort to fathom the mysteries of Natural 
Forces, for the benefit of mankind. 

Most sincerely, 

W. P. WIEMAN. 



128 



INDEX 



PAGE 



Preface 3 

Famous Writers 5 

Introduction 9 

Electricity 1*2 

Universal Gravitation 16 

Universal Forces 24 

Physical Universe 27 

The Solar System 29 

Sun and Planets 33 

Table of Solar Bodies 35 

Properties of Solar Bodies 37 

Comparative Sizes 37 

Sun (Spectroheliogram) 39 

Storms on the Sun 39 

Heat of the Sun 40 

Saturn 43 

Jupiter 47 

Earth 18 

Moon t 50 

Force 52 

Matter 53 

Table of Elementary Substances 54 



INDEX 

PAGE 

Force and Matter 56 

Solar Magnetism 59 

Solar Magnetic Control 61 

Terrestrial Magnetism 65 

Electrical Development 68 

Forces of Electricity 71 

Electromotive Force 73 

Current 75 

Magnetism 78 

Resistance 81 

Heat 84 

Dynamic Electricity 87 

Process of Generation 91 

Direct Current Dynamo 95 

Direct Current Motor 101 

Alternating Current Generator 109 

Alternating Current Motor 114 

Alternating Current Transformer 115 

Transmission 120 

Electrical Terms 121 

Summary 126 

Conclusion , 127 



